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Illustration of two women having a discussion with a thought bubble featuring a melting globe and an illuminati symbolIMAGE SOURCE,JANA TAUSCHINSKI/ BBC
By Merlyn Thomas & Marco Silva
BBC Climate Disinformation reporters

What can you do when the people closest to you believe climate change is a hoax?

It was during school pick-up a few years ago that Lance Lawson first asked his father about his views on global warming.

“He basically told me something along the lines of ’It’s nonsense’,” Lance recalls.

His dad spoke of unscrupulous politicians “fearmongering” for electoral gain. Climate change, he told Lance, was completely “overblown”.

From left to right: Brian Anderson (father) and Lance Lawson (son)IMAGE SOURCE,LANCE LAWSON
Image caption,
Brian Anderson (left) was convinced climate change was ‘nonsense’ until his son Lance Lawson started discussing it with him
Lance, now 21, lives with his father, Brian Anderson, in the US state of Florida. He was just a teenager when that conversation happened, but it made a huge impression on him.

“My father is a very smart man,” he says. “So I assumed that, if my father is telling me this, then it must be true.”

But, as time went on, Lance started realising his father’s views weren’t backed by scientific evidence – and he decided to challenge him.

“Whenever he drove me to school, I would give my own argument, and he would downplay the evidence. It would force me to acquire new evidence, and that cycle helped expand my own understanding.”

‘Vessels for communication’
If someone close to you believes climate change is a hoax, you may find it hard to do what Lance did.

Maybe you fear confrontation, maybe you simply don’t know how to explain the basic science of global warming.

A really simple guide to climate change
How do we know climate change is caused by humans?
How extreme weather is linked to climate change
But Gail Whiteman, professor of sustainability at the University of Exeter, says it’s important to talk: "If we don’t tackle climate denial and climate indifference, then the uphill battle to find a safer future is lost.

“We need to tackle our teachers, our neighbours… All of us have to become vessels for communication.”

But how exactly do you go about starting the conversation?

Reciting the facts isn’t always the answer
Sander van der Linden is professor of social psychology at the University of Cambridge, and studies how people get sucked into conspiracy theories.

Sander van der Linden, professor of social psychology at the University of Cambridge.IMAGE SOURCE,DANIELLA DA SILVA
Image caption,
Prof Sander van der Linden says facts don’t always change minds – in fact, they might backfire
He says years of research have shown him that confronting people with hard evidence is not the way to go.

While it might be tempting to try to bluntly fight conspiracy theories with facts, “there’s a very high chance it backfires”.

“Telling people that they don’t know what they’re talking about, or that they’re wrong, just creates more defensive responses.”

Lance says there is a common misconception that people who don’t believe that climate change is real are “stupid or uneducated”.

“But there are a lot of people out there who are just naturally sceptical as part of their personality,” he says.

His father, Brian, is one of them – he grew up in rural Minnesota in the 1970s. “It was incredibly cold,” Brian says, and this made it hard for him to believe scientists who spoke of a “warming planet”.

Two men standing on water with megaphonesIMAGE SOURCE,GETTY IMAGES
Affirm their worldview
Lance says that his father is a very religious man – so he asked him to assume that climate change might be real, and questioned whether he wouldn’t then have a moral responsibility to take care of what God had provided.

“Lance spoke in a language that I could appreciate and understand,” says Brian. “You have to approach people in terms of where they’re at.”

Prof van der Linden believes that changing the minds of climate deniers is impossible without affirming – to some extent – their worldview.

He says it’s important to “[expose] techniques of manipulation” by asking questions such as: “Have you considered that some of these theories might be created to take advantage of people?”

‘Remain humble’
No-one likes being talked down to, and the same goes for someone engaging with climate change denial.

“You can’t convince someone if they perceive that there’s a power differential,” says Prof van der Linden. “The whole point of a conspiracy is the idea that there are these powerful elites conspiring against us.”

Lance’s close bond with his dad is something he believes was key to persuading him, but he also says it’s important to check your tone: “Ask yourself, ‘Am I sounding sanctimonious?’ Remain humble. Be gentle.”

Is it worth it?
Falling down the rabbit hole of conspiratorial thinking can be a long process – taking months, or even years.

Prof van der Linden believes that thinking you’ll win someone over with a single, one-off conversation is simply not realistic: “You have to be content with small wins, and compromise.”

And yet, some experts question whether talking to climate change deniers is really worth it.

Abbie Richards researches the spread of misinformation on social media.

Screenshot from a TikTok video by Abbie RichardsIMAGE SOURCE,TIKTOK/TOFOLOGY
Image caption,
Abbie Richards is sceptical about the merit of arguing with climate change deniers
“Effort is better spent on pushing for actual change, rather than trying to combat solidified disinformation that has been pushed… for years,” she says.

“But I also think trying to find things that you can agree upon might be more helpful, like [other] policies that we could both get behind.”

On TikTok, she debunks disinformation about climate change, but says she’s given up trying to engage with hardcore conspiracy theorists.

“I don’t give credibility to people who are denying climate science, and I don’t want to waste my energy on debunking more of their disinformation.”

But Prof van der Linden points out that “some of these dismissive individuals are very loud and have a disproportionate influence on public debate”.

“It’s quite risky to do nothing, especially when [they] have outsized voices.”

‘Breathtaking moment’
With time and patience, Lance managed to convince his father that climate change was real – so much so that he was surprised by his own success.

“One time, my dad came downstairs in the middle of the night, so enthused after watching a documentary about deforestation that he was like: ‘Lance you won’t believe what’s going on in the rainforest!’

“It was a breathtaking moment, to see him so engaged.”

Police cordon off protesters in LeicesterIMAGE SOURCE,LEICESTER MEDIA
By Reha Kansara & Abdirahim Saeed
BBC Trending and BBC Monitoring

Recent violent disorder in Leicester caused shock and outrage and prompted dozens of arrests, but how much was it fuelled by misinformation posted online?

We’ve spent the past week trying to unpick some of the false claims in and about Leicester and tried to see how much they spread both in the run-up to the disorder and the aftermath.

Temporary chief constable Rob Nixon told BBC Two’s Newsnight there had been a deliberate attempt by people to use social media in a destructive way.

Mayor Sir Peter Soulsby also blamed online disinformation and said otherwise there was “no obvious local cause for this at all”. At least one of those sentenced over the disorder has admitted being influenced by social media.

When we spoke to people in Leicester, either community leaders, or those who otherwise had experience of the disorder, they singled out particular pieces of misinformation that had fuelled tension in the run-up to the worst of the disorder on the weekend of 17-18 September.

One false story was referenced several times.

“Today my 15-year-old daughter… was nearly kidnapped,” read a post uploaded on to Facebook, supposedly by a concerned father. “3 Indian boys got out and asked her if she was Muslim. She said yes and one guy tried to grab her.”

The post was liked hundreds of times, not on Facebook but on Twitter after Majid Freeman, a community activist, shared the family’s story on 13 September. He also shared a message from the police which he said was “confirming the incident which took place yesterday [12 September]”.

But there had been no kidnap attempt.

The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites.View original tweet on Twitter
A day later, Leicestershire Police issued a statement after investigating and stated that “the incident did not take place”. Majid Freeman deleted his posts and said the attempted abduction had not happened and that his initial version had been based on conversation with the family making the allegation.

But damage had already been done and this false kidnap claim kept being regurgitated on other platforms.

On WhatsApp, messages forwarded many times over were initially taken by some as the truth. On Instagram, profiles – some with hundreds of thousands of followers – shared screenshots of the original post and allegedly accused a Hindu man of being behind the “failed abduction”.

But it’s not possible to gauge the scale of spread in private networks. And as far as public posts go we have used the CrowdTangle tool and been unable to find any repeating the attempted kidnapping claims. Posts could have been deleted of course, and the claims may still be circulating in private groups.

Many in Leicester have said the roots of the tension go back much further. A swathe of media reports have focused on an incident in Leicester following a dramatic victory for India over Pakistan in cricket’s Asia Cup in Dubai on 28 August.

As with so much misinformation what happened next was a matter of distortion rather than complete fabrication.

Something did happen. Video from that night shows a group of men, with several wearing India kits, marching down Melton Road in Leicester shouting “death to Pakistan” before scuffles broke out and the police arrived.

Many on social media seized on another video supposedly showing a Muslim man being attacked after walking into the crowd. But it has subsequently been widely suggested that the man was a Sikh.

Leicester police stand around man holding his hands in the airIMAGE SOURCE,LEICESTER MEDIA
There are some in Leicester who trace the disorder back much further, at least to an incident on Sunday 22 May. Video has been circulated on social media purportedly showing a 19-year-old Muslim man being pursued by a group of men described in social media posts as “Hindu extremists”. Other posts referred to Hindutva, an ideology mostly associated with right-wing Hindu nationalists in India.

The video itself does not show much – it is grainy and black-and-white and shows a group of men running down a street before an altercation happens. It’s hard to decipher who these men were and what their specific backgrounds are.

Police have said they are investigating a report of a public order offence and have interviewed a 28-year-old man, but that the investigation is ongoing. The religious affiliation of the victim has not been revealed.

While the truth of the incident is still being investigated, the social media posts have consistently been explicit in describing it as religiously motivated.

Picking apart how much the social media distortion and misinformation has actually driven disorder is extremely difficult.

These three incidents are not the only episodes to have prompted flurries of social media activity but they remain the most cited in the run-up to the major disorder on 17 and 18 September.

Graph of tweets related to Leicester unrest
Those events in Leicester, with tensions and disorder suddenly prominent in national media, prompted a massive increase in social media posts.

An investigation by BBC Monitoring – using commercial Twitter analysis tool Brandwatch – identified about half a million tweets in English that mention Leicester in the context of recent tensions.

Within a sample of 200,000 tweets, BBC Monitoring found that just over half of mentions were made by accounts that the tool geo-located to India. The top hashtags used by many of the Indian accounts in the past week included #Leicester, #HindusUnderAttack and #HindusUnderattackinUK.

The BBC found lots of indications of manipulation by accounts using these hashtags.

The most prolific user of some of these hashtags, for example, was geo-located to India, had no profile picture and the account was only started earlier this month. These are classic signs that can suggest “inauthentic activity” ie a likelihood that individuals are deliberately using multiple accounts to push a narrative.

The BBC examined the top 30 URLs that were shared using these hashtags. Of them, 11 were links to articles written by news website OpIndia.com, which describes itself as “bringing the right side of India to you”. As well as potentially inauthentic accounts, these articles were also widely shared by genuine accounts including some with hundreds of thousands of followers.

One of the OpIndia articles cited British researcher Charlotte Littlewood, from the Henry Jackson Society, who told GB News that several Hindu families had left Leicester due to threats of violence from Muslims. The article was retweeted nearly 2,500 times. Leicester Police have since said that they were unaware of any reports of families having to leave.

It’s important to stress that there was no significant volume of tweets before the outbreak of the major disorder on 17-18 September.

Screenshot of tweetIMAGE SOURCE,TWITTER
Among the wave of social media activity in the UK prompted by the disorder, claims circulated widely that coach-loads of Hindu activists were being bussed into Leicester to stir up trouble.

All we have to go on is the identities of the people arrested by police. As of 23 September they had arrested 47 people, of whom eight had been charged. Of those arrested, 36 were from Leicester, one from Market Harborough, eight from Birmingham and just two from London. All of the eight who were charged were from Leicester.

Some posts made allegations that a specific London coach company had been used to bus in Hindu activists.

A video that circulated on WhatsApp and Twitter from 18 September showed a coach outside a Hindu temple in London, with a voice claiming the coach had just returned from Leicester. In a video posted the next day on Instagram the owner of the coach company said: “lots of people are calling me, threatening me, abusing me without any reason.”

Screenshot of tweet
He said that none of his coaches had travelled to Leicester in the past two months and provided evidence from the GPS tracker of the bus in the video showing it had remained in south-east England on the weekend of 17-18 September.

False claims also circulated about the causes of a fire in Birmingham on Monday 19 September. Posts viewed thousands of times on Twitter blamed “Islamic extremists” for setting the fire, without evidence.

West Midlands Fire Service investigated the fire and concluded it started by accident when outdoor burning of rubbish spread to the building.

The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites.View original tweet on Twitter
Of course this is by no means to say that all of the posts that followed in the immediate aftermath of the disorder were misleading or distorted.

One of the most circulated videos showed a group of masked Hindu men marching through Green Lane Road, an area of Leicester with a large Muslim population, shouting the Hindu slogan “Jai Shri Ram”.

Another video was circulated with posters saying it showed a Muslim man pulling down a Hindu saffron flag outside a temple. A flag was indeed pulled down at a temple on Belgrave Road in the city on the night of Saturday 17 September and police were investigating. However, the identity of the culprit is unclear.The false claims and inflammatory posts that have exacerbated tensions between Hindus and Muslims have been condemned by many locals from these communities.

For decades, the city has been home to South Asians who came to the UK from parts of India and East Africa, and they have lived side-by-side and fought for equal rights together.

Some people link the disorder and the reaction to it to the Hindutva ideology. They believe that Indian politics is being imported to the city, but thus far the BBC has found no direct link to such groups in the run-up to the disorder.

Another narrative being pushed is that a particular, small South Asian community, allegedly with conservative views, started these tensions. Both Hindus and Muslims we’ve spoken to have expressed this. Again, there is no concrete evidence to support, nor counter this claim.

It is difficult to pinpoint what has caused this violent unrest, but one thing is clear, social media stands accused of being the catalyst for sowing further divisions.

Additional reporting by Yasminara Khan, Ahmed Nour, Khush Sameja, Shruti Menon, Ned Davies, Joshua Cheetham and Daniele Palumbo.

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The photo above was taken in the aftermath of a Russian airstrike in Mariupol. It circulated online, on newspaper front pages, and was argued about at the UN Security Council.

But, having survived one attack, Marianna faced another onslaught – of disinformation and hate aimed at her and her family.

As Russia attempted to sow falsehoods about the attack, 29-year-old Marianna was falsely accused of “acting”. Russian diplomats even claimed that she had “played” not one, but two different women.

Marianna Vyshemirsky smiling as she talks to the BBC on a video call.
Image caption,
Marianna on a video call during her interview with the BBC
I’ve spoken extensively to her friends and relatives, but have been trying to interview my namesake for weeks. So when she finally appears on my screen on a video call, it feels a little surreal. She tells me about her harrowing escape, and about the online abuse that came after.

“I received threats that they would come and find me, that I would be killed, that my child would be cut into pieces,” she says.

This is her first interview with a major western media outlet after being evacuated to her hometown in a part of Donbas controlled by Russian-backed separatists.

Marianna seems at ease, and is speaking to me without any preconditions, but a pro-separatist blogger is with her.

She tells me what it’s like to find herself inside an information battle – all while giving birth to her daughter Veronika in a war zone.

“She chose to show up at a difficult time,” she explains, “but it’s better she arrived under these circumstances than not at all.”

Listen to Marianna’s story on War on Truth from Radio 4, now on BBC Sounds
‘Things were turned upside down’
Life in Mariupol was very different before the war. Marianna promoted beauty products on social media, while her husband Yuri worked at the Azovstal steel works.

“We had a quiet and simple life,” she says, “and then, of course, things were turned upside down.”

Her Instagram account shows her excitement at the prospect of becoming a mother.

Marianna posted this picture on Instagram in late February, asking her followers to guess whether her baby would be a boy or a girl
IMAGE SOURCE,INSTAGRAM
Image caption,
Marianna posted this picture on Instagram in late February, asking her followers to guess whether her baby would be a boy or a girl
But by the time Marianna was admitted to hospital, Mariupol had become the most bombed city in Ukraine.

On 9 March, she was chatting with other women on the ward when an explosion shook the hospital.

She pulled a blanket over her head. Then a second explosion hit.

“You could hear everything flying around, shrapnel and stuff,” she says. “The sound was ringing in my ears for a very long time.”

The women sheltered in the basement with other civilians. Marianna suffered a forehead cut and glass fragments lodged in her skin, but a doctor told her she didn’t need stitches.

What she did need, she explains, was to retrieve her possessions from the ruins of the hospital. She asked a police officer to help her back inside.

“Everything I had prepared for my baby was in that maternity ward,” she says.

Anatomy of a lie
While she stood outside the hospital, waiting to recover her things, she was photographed by journalists from the Associated Press. They snapped her again as she descended the stairs exiting the building.

An injured pregnant woman walks downstairs in a maternity hospital damaged by shelling in Mariupol, Ukraine, Wednesday, March 9, 2022
IMAGE SOURCE,AP
Those images quickly went viral. And that’s when false allegations that the pictures were “staged” first appeared on a pro-Kremlin Telegram channel. Marianna’s beauty blogging was used to suggest she was an “actor” who had used makeup to fake injuries.

These falsehoods were repeated and amplified by senior Russian officials and state media.

They even claimed that a photo of another pregnant woman on a stretcher was also Marianna, even though it’s clear that the photos are of different people. The woman on the stretcher and her unborn child later died from their injuries.

This tweet from the Russian Embassy in London containing false information was taken down by Twitter
IMAGE SOURCE,TWITTER
Image caption,
This tweet from the Russian Embassy in London containing false information was taken down by Twitter
Fleeing and without internet access, Marianna didn’t see those images until days later.

By that point, her Instagram was inundated with accusatory and threatening messages. She found both the trolling and the false allegations shocking.

“It was really offensive to hear that, because I actually lived through it all,” she says. But she refrains from directly criticising the Russian officials who spread the false information about her.

Instead, she criticises the Associated Press.

“I was offended that the journalists who had posted my photos on social media had not interviewed other pregnant women who could confirm that this attack had really happened.”

She suggests this may help explain why some people “got the impression that it was all staged”. But by Marianna’s own account she was one of the last patients to be evacuated, and that was when the AP journalists arrived. The journalists interviewed other people at the scene. And they had nothing to do with the subsequent false story spread by Russian officials. We approached the AP for comment.

The search for Marianna
In the days after the attack, Marianna gave birth to Veronika in another hospital.

Marianna Vishegirskaya lies in a hospital bed after giving birth to her daughter Veronika, in Mariupol,
IMAGE SOURCE,AP
Image caption,
Marianna in a different hospital after giving birth to her daughter, several days after the bombing
Like thousands of others, Marianna and Yuri were desperately trying to escape Mariupol. For weeks, it was largely impossible to make contact with them. Eventually Marianna’s relatives told me the couple had got out of the city, but their whereabouts were unclear. Then in early April, they resurfaced in the Donbas region.

She filmed an interview with Denis Seleznev, a blogger who is a vocal supporter of Russian-backed separatists. There was speculation how free she was to say what she wanted.

Marianna says to me: “I had to describe the whole situation, as I saw it with my own eyes.”

My conversation with her was also arranged via Denis. Marianna speaks to me from his home. He is present throughout our chat but doesn’t interrupt. Marianna’s relatives and friends have assured me she is now safe.

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Piecing together the truth
Much of what she says in her interview with me undermines the Russian government’s mistruths.

The Kremlin wrongly and repeatedly suggested the hospital that was attacked was Mariupol’s hospital number one, and that it was no longer operational.

But the BBC’s disinformation team identified the hospital where Marianna was – hospital number three.

map of hospitals in Mariupol
We contacted the Russian Embassy in London for comment.

Marianna confirms that the hospital was definitely treating her and other patients – contrary to Russian claims that it was not functioning as a health care facility.

Russia also claimed that the hospital had been taken over by the Azov regiment – the controversial Ukrainian nationalist group that has been linked with neo-Nazis, allegations they themselves deny.

Comments Marianna made in her interview with Denis were cherry-picked by Russian officials to claim soldiers forced Marianna and the other pregnant women to act as human shields.

But Marianna told me there were no Ukrainian military stationed in the building where she was. She says she saw Ukrainian soldiers in the oncology unit in the building opposite the maternity unit. It’s unclear whether they were based there or not.

Nevertheless, Marianna’s interview with Denis Seleznev was used by the Kremlin to suggest further falsehoods.

Russian officials have seized on her comments that she doesn’t believe the explosions at the hospital were caused by an airstrike, implying that the damage was Ukrainian shelling.

“The typical sound a plane makes when it flies overhead is impossible to miss,” Marianna tells me, saying that she did not hear one.

But here she is mistaken. The AP journalists documented evidence it was an airstrike, including video where a plane can be heard. At the scene both a soldier and a police officer say the attack was an airstrike.

Also visible in photos is a huge crater which munition experts say could only have been caused by an airstrike.

“I personally did not see this crater, but I saw the video of it,” Marianna says. “In reality I can’t blame anyone – because I didn’t see with my own eyes where for certain [the explosions] came from.”

Target for trolls
This fresh controversy sparked a new wave of online vitriol.

“Some people said that I was an actress, others said that I was lying about the fact that there were no air raids,” she says.

Even some she regarded as friends don’t believe her. Fellow beauty blogger Yaroslava lives in Russia and continues to believe state TV claims that Marianna was acting.

“I think that Marianna played her part. That Ukraine needed the Ukrainian military to blame everything on Russia.” Yaroslava told me. She’s since unfollowed Marianna on Instagram – and doesn’t want to speak to her again.

“It’s a pity when people I know believe in something that I haven’t done,” Marianna says.

But she brightens whenever the conversation turns to baby Veronika.

Marianna has returned to blogging and in a recent post told readers to stick around if they were interested in “cosmetics, nappies and the everyday life of a new mum”.

Her message to those who want to send her hate was “go in peace”.

But unwillingly finding herself at the centre of an information war – as the military conflict continues – has changed Marianna’s life forever.

“You know, for now I’m not thinking about my hopes or making plans, because we don’t know what tomorrow will bring.”
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Jeanne LeGall, of Buffalo, hugs Claudia Carballada, of Buffalo, as she gets emotional, as she pays her respects at an makeshift memorial as people gather at the scene of a mass shooting at Tops Friendly Market at Jefferson Avenue and Riley Street on Sunday, May 15, 2022 in Buffalo, NYIMAGE SOURCE,GETTY IMAGES
By Shayan Sardarizadeh
BBC Monitoring
The racially motivated attack that left 10 people dead at a New York state supermarket is just the latest example of violence inspired by online extremism.

The shooting spree in Buffalo followed the exact blueprint of similar attacks around the US and the world.

It’s also happened in Pittsburgh, Christchurch, Poway, El Paso and Halle – internet-radicalised racist white men deliberately targeting members of a specific community, leaving extensive trails chronicling their extreme views online.

How did the perpetrators get immersed in extremist online subcultures? And what can be done to tackle the violence that springs from these groups?

Radicalised online
Like others before him, Payton Gendron, 18, the main suspect behind the Buffalo attack, posted a lengthy so-called “manifesto” explaining his motives and beliefs.

Some of the text is copied and pasted from similar racist manifestos written by 2019 Christchurch mass murderer Brenton Tarrant and other violent assailants. Gendron cites Tarrant as his main inspiration and gateway into the world of online extremism and white supremacy.

All of the recent far-right assailants cite the internet as the starting place for their journeys towards radicalisation. Their manifestos and writings show they were well-versed in the online subcultures, conspiracy theories and memes, and used those to deliberately “troll” or misinform.

Notably, all of them are committed anti-Semites and Holocaust deniers, and cite a wide range of conspiracy theories.

Nearly all of them reference “white genocide” and “white replacement” conspiracy theories, as well as their resentment of immigrants and minority groups, as the bedrock of their belief system and the main motivation for their violence.

“The idea of a ‘white genocide’ creates a sense of urgency and of the need for immediate action,” says Rajan Basra, a researcher from the International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation (ICSR) at King’s College London.

“For white nationalists this can be a powerful motivator, and time and time again they have violently acted on it.”

Aftermath of mass shooting at grocery store in Buffalo, New York
IMAGE SOURCE,EPA
The Buffalo attacker also posted nearly 700 pages of his private diary, dating back seven months – copies of which the BBC has read.

The logs are a window into the mind of a clearly troubled young man who regularly spoke about his addiction to gaming and surfing extreme online circles.

He carried out extensive research and several reconnaissance journeys to the grocery store in Buffalo to carefully plan the manner and timing of his attack, and practised mock versions.

He briefly mentions getting into trouble with authorities a year earlier after writing something that alarmed them.

The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites.
View original tweet on Twitter
There are brief moments of doubt, as he wonders whether he will be able to carry out a mass shooting without “messing up”.

There are also graphic details of an act of animal cruelty and suicidal thoughts for failing to carry out the attack on the date he’d initially planned.

Packed full of racist and anti-Semitic conspiracy theories, memes, hoaxes and and in-jokes, his manifesto is also clearly influenced by the message board 4chan, one of the biggest and most controversial hubs of internet subculture. It is the birthplace of many famous online memes, harassment and trolling campaigns, as well as social, political and conspiratorial movements.

4chan datapic 2
Gendron references a 4chan board devoted to guns, and says he was radicalised by the /pol/ or “politically incorrect” board. He also mentions other extreme online spaces he visited, including the neo-Nazi website The Daily Stormer.

The attacker also live-streamed his killings on the video streaming platform Twitch with a camera mounted on his helmet. Like Tarrant, he wrote white supremacist slogans and racial slurs on his firearm.

The stream was only watched by 22 people and Twitch took it down within minutes. However, copies were in wide circulation online within hours, drawing millions of views on Facebook and other platforms.

Maximum impact
The combination of an online manifesto and video livestream is done to generate maximum media impact and spread the killer’s views as far and wide as possible.

Copies of the video and manifesto will probably be shared online for years to come, for propaganda purposes and as a recruitment tool. And although mainstream social networks will remove copies, there are many fringe websites where the video can be easily found.

Eliminating content from the internet is more or less impossible. For instance, after the violence in the US city of Charlottesville in 2017, the neo-Nazi Daily Stormer came under pressure from hosting and web protection companies.

But with enough effort, that site can still be found online, and the Buffalo attacker claims to have been a regular visitor.

Why Cloudflare kicked out the neo-Nazis
Neo-Nazi site loses web defences
And as previously seen with fringe platforms like 8chan – where the manifestos of three killers appeared in quick succession in 2019 – even if access to one website is cut off, new ones will pop up in no time.

“On the internet, there will always be a home – however niche or obscure – for extremist content,” says Mr Basra of the ISCR.

The rambling documents aim to inspire the next racist shooter, just as Gendron himself took inspiration from Brenton Tarrant, and Tarrant from Norwegian neo-Nazi murderer Anders Breivik.

“People once shunted to the fringes can form whole cultic [online] communities around the globe,” says author and journalist David Neiwert, who has been writing about far-right extremism for decades.

“One of the results of this is that far-right domestic terrorism has taken on a chain or serial aspect: one act of violence inspiring the next inspiring the next,” he says.

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Graphic showing the stages of the shooting’s location
Federal preventative programmes
In response to the rise of home-grown terrorist attacks, many governments have attempted to draw up counter-terrorism plans to prevent such tragedies.

The UK government’s Prevent scheme is one example. Although criticised for failing to deter some people known to authorities, like Ali Harbi Ali, the Islamist extremist who killed MP Sir David Amess, the government claims it has stopped hundreds of would-be terrorists.

No similar scheme exists in the US. In June 2021, the White House released a national plan for countering domestic terrorism. The plan focuses mostly on law enforcement efforts and includes $77 million in grants for local police forces.

Mr Neiwert says that while US law enforcement is empowered to become engaged when criminal activities are being discussed online, there’s little they can do until a suspect takes action.

The assailant in Buffalo did not fly entirely under the radar. Last year, his brush with the authorities resulted in a short stay in a hospital undergoing a mental health evaluation.

New York state has a law that allows police to confiscate the guns of people considered dangerous. Local police and the FBI will now face questions about whether they could have done more.

But the larger problem remains: a global leaderless movement of young violent extremists, radicalised on the internet, some of whom are prepared to launch deadly attacks against innocent people.

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